Other Minds

"Other Minds" opens a unique window into the world of one of our planet's strangest and most intelligent creatures - the octopus. Unlike mammals and birds, whose intelligence evolved through social bonds and cooperation, octopuses evolved completely independently, offering us a fascinating glimpse into an alternative form of intelligence. Their complex behaviour, autonomous limbs and ability to adapt in extreme environments raise questions about the nature of consciousness and how intelligent thought can be rooted in quite different biological foundations. The book also challenges our traditional notions of thought, communication, and survival and offers a new perspective on the diversity of life forms on Earth.

The nervous system of octopuses is fascinatingly unique and, for many scientists, a little unsettling. This is because most of the neurons are not located in the brain, as they are in mammals, but directly in the arms. Each arm is like its own "thinking unit," capable of making complex movements and even making decisions on its own. An example of this autonomy is an experiment from 2011, when researchers found that even a severed arm responds to stimuli and can grasp objects - completely without the presence of central control. This independence allows the octopuses incredible flexibility and speed in their responses, which is crucial for their survival in the inhospitable underwater environment. Imagine a fish trying to escape - the octopus can then decide in real time when and with which arm to reach for it. Each arm can sense what is within its reach, and it can do so virtually instantaneously. In nature, this extraordinary ability for independent control is unparalleled and surpasses even most terrestrial predators. In 2017, scientists revealed that octopuses can use individual arms not only to move and hunt, but also to explore and experiment with objects, suggesting elements of intelligent and creative thinking. There is even evidence that some species of octopuses show a preference for specific arms, similar to how humans prefer the dominant arm. This parallel between the nervous systems of humans and octopuses raises questions about the origins of intelligence, which can arise in a variety of ways. An example of the unique adaptation of octopuses is their ability to learn in a matter of days or even hours how to exploit new environments and obstacles, allowing them to survive in very diverse environments. For example, when scientists put an octopus in an environment with a complex labyrinth, it quickly adopted the simplest way of moving. This peculiar structure of their nervous system invites us to think about what it actually means to be intelligent. Research on octopuses brings us important findings - intelligence is not necessarily centralized, and the human brain is not the only way a living creature can think.

Octopus intelligence arose independently of human intelligence, providing unique insight into the evolution of thinking and reasoning abilities beyond mammals. Imagine billions of years of evolution where octopuses and humans evolved separately and developed their own ways to survive, perceive the world, and respond to stimuli. This fact makes them fascinating "other thinkers," a kind of aliens here on Earth who can help us understand how intelligent behavior can evolve under very different conditions. Thanks to their independent evolution, octopuses rely on different strategies and senses than humans. For example, they don't have ears, but they sense vibrations and currents in the surrounding water, giving them a sensitive predator warning system. Their eyes are remarkably evolved, and although they differ from ours, they allow them to see almost full-circle without moving their heads. An example of exceptional adaptability is the well-known case of an octopus from an aquarium in Germany that learned to open a container with a lid. Scientists didn't believe it was possible at first, but the octopus quickly figured out how to turn the lid using its arms. This phenomenon demonstrates their ability to solve problems in a way that could be considered thoughtful. While intelligence in humans is closely linked to cooperation, learning from others and forming social bonds, octopuses are more of loners. Each individual learns and survives largely on their own, with no social structure to support them. Therefore, their intelligence is oriented towards immediate, practical solutions, without collective thinking. In this difference we find a new perspective on what it means to be intelligent and how different organisms can use their mental capacities for adaptation. Octopuses are living proof that intelligence is not the only way to think and survive, and that our human perspective is just one of many on the evolutionary spectrum.

The evolutionary trajectory of octopuses has evolved such that their intelligent behavior is primarily for survival, not for the development of enduring social structures, as is the case with humans. This focus on immediate gratification and adaptability is a consequence of the hostile environment in which octopuses live - under constant threat from predators and in an unstable underwater ecosystem. Unlike mammals, octopuses do not use their intelligence to form long-term social relationships or to communicate among members of the species. Their solitary lifestyle means that each octopus must rely on its own abilities, leading to a highly individualistic use of intelligence. For example, if an octopus finds itself under threat, it reacts and adapts to the situation immediately - it can change colour, shape, even retreat into a small crevice or use rocks and shells for protection. This style of survival does not require collective cooperation, but rather rapid adaptability. Studies have shown that octopuses can quickly learn new tricks if it ensures their survival. In one experiment, an octopus was able to navigate through a maze and memorize its way, proving that it has an exceptional ability to learn from its own experiences. Unlike companion animals, which are often taught by a group, the octopus handles everything on its own and quickly, as its life may depend on how it decides in the moment. This extraordinary ability to learn and adapt quickly under pressure reminds us of other creatures that must adapt to extreme conditions, such as desert animals or insects. But while these creatures react mostly instinctively, octopuses have elements of intelligence that include planning and experimentation. Evolution has not forced them to form complex social structures or communities. Each octopus presents an individual story of survival, independent decision-making and rapid response to threats. In doing so, they show us that even in the case of intelligence, success may not be defined by collective achievement, but by individual ingenuity and flexibility.

This unique ability to change the colour and texture of their skin allows octopuses not only to camouflage themselves perfectly, but also to communicate with their surroundings. Thanks to special cells called chromatophores, their arms and body can transform into almost any color pattern. These changes allow them to blend in with their environment, which protects them from predators, or conversely, they can use contrasting colors to intimidate enemies. This ability is so perfect that they can go from the grey-green hue of the sea floor to a vibrant coral-like pattern in a second. Scientists don't yet understand exactly how aware octopuses are of these visual displays, but it is known that they can respond to stimuli without seeing their own bodies. Even a completely blind octopus can change color, suggesting that these abilities are subconscious responses linked to the nervous system rather than conscious decisions. One of the most interesting observations is that octopuses sometimes use these color patterns even when interacting with other animals, especially when trying to warn or intimidate a potential enemy. However, this color "language" is not precisely coded, as it is in animals with social hierarchies. Rather, each octopus uses color change intuitively and according to its individual needs. Examples of their masterful camouflage are some species of octopuses that can mimic other animals, such as the sea snake, allowing them to deceive predators. This behavior demonstrates their ability to adapt and creatively deal with situations that could be deadly for other sea creatures. Their skin provides them with something of a "second brain" that functions automatically and reflectively. Octopuses rely on rapid body changes instead of long-term planning, which is different from our human methods of adaptation. This method of defense reminds us again that intelligent survival can take many forms, each evolving according to specific needs and environmental conditions.

Scientists believe that octopuses have subjective consciousness - meaning that they can experience the world in their own unique way. Although it is difficult to know whether these creatures actually feel emotions or have self-awareness, research suggests that octopuses respond to stimuli in ways that go beyond simple reflexes. Observed behaviors, such as curious exploration of objects or problem-solving abilities, suggest some form of conscious experience. One case that has attracted attention is the story of an octopus in an aquarium that reportedly was able to recognize its caretakers. Over time, it began to react differently to individuals - liking some, while avoiding others or splashing them with water. This selective response may be a manifestation of a higher mental ability to discriminate between familiar and unfamiliar people. In addition, octopuses often exhibit behavior that could be called playfulness. In one experiment, an octopus was observed releasing a stream of water onto a floating bottle and observing its movement as if it were playing with it. This type of behavior is common in intelligent animals such as dolphins or primates, and suggests a kind of interest in the world beyond immediate survival. Their ability to solve complex problems and remember solutions supports the idea that octopuses may have a subjective experience of the world. This aspect of their intelligence is fascinating because it is independent of the social learning and social bonds that are common in humans and other mammals. The study of octopus consciousness raises questions about how subjective experience may have evolved in species with different evolutionary histories. If octopuses do indeed experience the world consciously, then they are one of the few species on the planet that have a complex form of consciousness - which could mean that perception and consciousness are not as rare as we once thought, and may be present in a variety of life forms.

The study of octopuses raises new questions about the nature of intelligence and consciousness and suggests that these abilities may have arisen through different evolutionary pathways. Whereas human intelligence evolved through social interactions, octopuses represent an individual model of thought in which they learn and survive largely on their own. This alternative model forces us to rethink assumptions about what it means to be intelligent and what forms intelligence can take. An example of this diversity is octopuses, which demonstrate complex behaviors without the presence of a strong social structure. While mammals and birds learn many skills from observing their parents or a group, octopuses must acquire most skills on their own. This points to a different kind of cognition - one that is not tied to collective learning, but to rapid adaptation and experimentation. Another interesting aspect is the question of consciousness. If octopuses have some form of subjective experience, then this would imply that consciousness need not be the exclusive domain of mammals. One might wonder if there are other creatures that, despite having different nervous systems, also experience the world consciously. This phenomenon would suggest that consciousness is perhaps a deeply ingrained part of evolution and may appear in multiple species. Octopuses thus represent an important research model that allows scientists to explore intelligence and consciousness outside established frameworks. They open up the debate about whether intelligence is necessarily centralized and whether there are different kinds of "thinking" that can arise independently of our biological starting points. These questions and insights allow us to expand our understanding of life and intelligence on Earth, suggesting that there are different pathways to the emergence of complex behaviors and adaptations. The study of octopuses thus teaches us not only about their unique world, but also about the fundamental principles of evolution that can shape intelligence and consciousness in all its possible forms.

What we have learned about octopuses suggests that intelligence and consciousness need not be exclusively human or mammalian attributes. Their autonomous arms, problem-solving abilities, and complex visual communication are evidence that thinking can arise through many different pathways. The study of octopuses shows us that intelligent behavior need not be tied to social bonds, but can also be individual and tailored to immediate survival. This knowledge expands our understanding of what consciousness encompasses and suggests that different kinds of intelligence may be diverse and closely linked to the needs of particular environments. The book thus invites us to rethink our ideas about the nature of thought and to acknowledge the diversity of life and intelligence that nature offers in many fascinating forms. Do you have feedback for us? We'd love it if you let us know your opinion on our content! Just send an email to feedback@rewio.app with the title of this book in the subject line and share your impressions!