Collapse

The history of mankind is interwoven with the ups and downs of civilizations. In "Collapse," Jared Diamond explores why some societies have survived for centuries and others have collapsed. Through analysis of historical and modern examples, Diamond reveals how environmental factors, climate change, demographic pressures, political decisions, and relations with neighbors affect societies' ability to survive. These factors, while acting individually, are interconnected and often form a chain of events that can lead to either flourishing or extinction. The book also offers a warning - if we do not learn from the mistakes of the past, history risks repeating itself, with even greater consequences.

Deforestation and unsustainable exploitation of natural resources are among the major factors that have led to the demise of many historical civilizations. An example is the fate of the inhabitants of Easter Island, who destroyed their ecosystem to such an extent that their society eventually collapsed. The island, famous for its huge stone moai statues, was once covered in dense forests. However, the constant clearing of trees to make ships, fuel and materials to move the statues gradually depleted all wood supplies. Without trees, the inhabitants lost soil protection from erosion, causing crop failure and famine. The destruction of forests, however, did not only threaten food. Without boats, the inhabitants were no longer able to fish, further worsening their situation. The loss of vegetation also led to a dramatic decline in biodiversity. The ecosystem that once supported life on the island became inhospitable and hostile. The situation was so severe that society descended into conflict and cannibalism as it struggled for scarce resources. A similar story played out in the 9th century in the area where the Maya lived. The dense rainforests were their main source of timber and food. However, extensive agricultural activity and construction projects caused the land to lose its fertility. The Mayans literally cut down the branch beneath them. The decline in crop yields, combined with a growing population, led to social unrest that eventually destroyed their civilization. Today, in many ways, history is repeating itself. The Amazon rainforest, known as the 'lungs of the planet', is facing widespread deforestation that threatens not only local ecosystems but also global climate stability. Although modern technology gives us the means to prevent disasters, a large number of companies still ignore the warning signs and continue to exploit resources unsustainably. The lessons from these stories are clear. The destruction of the natural environment will not go unchecked. Every tree that falls without thought for the future contributes to creating conditions that may threaten the very survival of human society. Sustainability should therefore not just be a slogan, but an integral part of our decision-making at both individual and global level. Natural resources are a gift, not an inexhaustible basis for continued growth.

Climate change has played a significant role in the collapse of several civilisations, and although its origins have not always been caused by human activity, its consequences have often been catastrophic. One of the most striking examples is the collapse of the Anasazi, the indigenous peoples who inhabited what is now the southwestern United States. This civilization had prospered for hundreds of years, but in the 13th century faced a prolonged drought that dramatically reduced their water supply and made it impossible to irrigate their agricultural fields. Without water, they could not grow corn, their staple food, which eventually forced them to abandon their homes and seek refuge elsewhere. Similarly, climate change also affected the fate of the Vikings in Greenland. In a period known as the Little Ice Age, which began in the 14th century, temperatures in the region dropped dramatically. The colder climate caused crop failures and difficulties for cattle farming. The Vikings, who relied on their traditional ways of subsistence, were unable to adapt to these changes. Reluctance to change their dietary habits and lack of connection with the Inuit, who were able to survive in the harsh climate, led to the gradual demise of their settlements. But climate change was not just an issue for prehistoric or medieval societies. Modern examples, such as the droughts in the Sahel in the 20th century, show that the problems associated with a changing climate are still relevant today. Millions of people in African countries such as Niger, Chad and Mali have faced food and water shortages, triggering mass migrations and social tensions. These crises highlight how a lack of preparedness for climate challenges can destabilise entire regions. Tackling climate change requires more than technological innovation. History shows that societies that have managed to survive dramatic climate change have had one thing in common - adaptability. The Anasazi or the Vikings were unable to respond effectively to new conditions, while the Inuit, in the same environment, used innovative livelihoods and managed to survive. However, the climate challenges we face today are global in nature and their solution depends on cooperation across countries. At the same time, history warns us that ignoring the signs of climate change can lead to the fates that have befallen many societies of the past. It is the capacity to adapt and the pursuit of long-term sustainability that may be the key to preserving civilisation as we know it.

Rapid population growth has proved to be a double-edged sword throughout history - it has brought development and prosperity, but it has also caused resource depletion and conflict. A case in point is the fate of the Kingdom of Rwanda in the 1990s, where rapid population growth increased pressure on agricultural land. The small area of fertile fields was insufficient to meet the needs of the growing population. Tensions between the Hutu and Tutsi ethnic groups, fuelled by competition for resources, resulted in a genocide that left the country in ruins. The historical precursor to this dynamic was the Maya. During their heyday, they experienced a period of intense population growth. To support ever larger cities, they cleared forests and expanded farmland. This expansion, however, caused a decline in soil quality and rapid land degradation. Agricultural yields began to decline, leading to famine, internal unrest and the subsequent decline of an entire civilization. We see contemporary parallels in urban areas around the world. Cities such as Lagos, Jakarta and Dhaka are facing unbearable pressure on infrastructure, housing and drinking water sources. Many of these cities are experiencing an uncontrolled influx of people from the countryside seeking a better life. However, these urbanisation processes often lead to environmental degradation and the creation of slums where living conditions are very poor. Population growth does not necessarily lead to disaster if societies can manage their resources efficiently. Japan is an example of a country that has managed to adapt. During the Edo period (17th to 19th centuries), it was faced with a dense population and limited resources. By emphasising sustainable practices such as recycling materials and careful use of land, they managed to avoid an ecological crisis. However, we can learn from history that ignoring warning signs, such as rising resource consumption or declining land productivity, can lead to unpredictable consequences. Modern technology and innovation can provide solutions, but they must be accompanied by a change in attitude towards the use of natural resources. Sound planning, education and international cooperation can prevent history from showing its darkest side again.

Political decisions play a key role in the destiny of any society because of their ability to shape its responses to crises and challenges. The consequences of poor decisions are illustrated by the story of the Norsek colony in Greenland. The Vikings, guided by traditional European ways, did not adapt to the harsh conditions of the Arctic environment. They insisted on farming and cattle breeding instead of adapting to the local way of life of the Inuit, who survived by hunting marine animals. Their political and social leadership prioritized identity preservation over pragmatism, leading to the colony's collapse. A similar example can be found in the case of ancient Mesopotamia, where the Sumerian civilization faced problems related to irrigation. Although their canals brought about an agricultural boom, the leaders ignored the problem of soil salinization. Without taking measures to protect the fertile soil, agricultural yields steadily declined, weakening the entire economy and causing decline. On the other hand, wise decisions can save society from disaster. One of the best examples is Japan during the Tokugawa period. The leaders of the time introduced strict measures to protect forests when the country began to be threatened by a massive loss of timber. Thanks to regulations and reforestation, the country avoided an ecological crisis that could have threatened its economy and population. Modern parallels can be seen in the example of Haiti and the Dominican Republic, which share the same island but completely different environmental and social outcomes. While Haiti faces massive deforestation and ecological problems due to lack of regulations and weak political leadership, the Dominican Republic has implemented laws to protect its forests and natural resources, which has allowed it to maintain a more stable environment. History shows that societies that have been able to face challenges have had leaders capable of making bold and long-term decisions. Policies focused on immediate gains without regard for the future lead to imbalances that can have fatal consequences. The key to survival is therefore a balance between the needs of the present and the protection of resources for future generations. Societies must ensure that policy decisions are not driven by short-term goals but by a vision of sustainable development.

The relationships between societies and their neighbours strongly influence their ability to survive and thrive. History shows that isolation and conflict can be equally destructive, while mutual cooperation can bring prosperity. One example where enmity with neighbours contributed to collapse is the fall of the Mayan civilisation. Constant warfare between city-states depleted resources, disrupted trade networks, and created insecurity that undermined the internal stability of society. The same principle applies to other civilizations, such as the Roman Empire. In the last centuries of its existence, Rome faced invasions by barbarians who eroded its borders. The inability to maintain peaceful relations or to respond effectively to external threats contributed to its demise. Had the Roman leadership been better able to integrate or pacify these groups, history might have looked different. On the other hand, mutual cooperation was able to help societies survive even adverse conditions. An example is the Inuit living in the Arctic region, who were able to establish effective trade networks with other tribes and thus acquire important resources that would have been unavailable in isolation. This strategy has enabled them to overcome climatic and environmental challenges. The modern world offers many parallels. North and South Korea, sharing the same peninsula, showcase different outcomes depending on what relations they have with their neighbours. South Korea uses international trade networks and alliances to promote its development, while isolated North Korea struggles with chronic resource scarcity and economic stagnation. History makes it clear that neighbours can be a key factor in a society's survival. Long-term isolation and conflict lead to weakened structures and resource scarcity, while cooperation and openness promote stability. In today's globalised world, it is therefore more necessary than ever to build partnerships and ensure peaceful relations between nations. For these interactions are more than just a matter of political agreements - they can determine whether societies prosper or descend into chaos.

Diamond's analysis encourages us to reflect on how fragile the foundations of our civilization can be if we ignore or fail to manage them responsibly. From deforestation and climate change, to the pressures of population growth, to the consequences of poor policy decisions and isolation from neighbours, the stories of societies that have fallen into chaos are a memento for our times. On the other hand, successful examples show that adaptability, long-term thinking and cooperation can save even societies facing seemingly insurmountable challenges. The book makes us understand that our future is in our hands. If we learn from the past and focus on sustainable use of resources, respect for the natural environment and building peaceful relationships, we can avoid the tragic fates that have befallen many great civilisations before us. Collapse is not inevitable - it is the result of our choices. Do you have feedback for us? We'd love it if you let us know your opinion on our content! Just send an email to feedback@rewio.app with the title of this book in the subject line and share your impressions!